This rhetoric serves to conceal the power dynamics that shape the relationship between the United States and online communications networks. Journal of the American Planning Association 61, 2:178–84. 90–136, doi.org/10.2307/2539368; Kimberly Ann Elliott, “The Sanctions Glass: Half Full or Completely Empty?” International Security, Vol. Although globalization is often characterized as involving complexity and fragmentation, this section demonstrates how strong systematic inequalities have emerged in two issue areas—finance and information. Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values. Farrell and Newman, “The New Politics of Interdependence.”. It has focused instead on trade relations between dyadic pairs and the vulnerabilities generated by those interactions.7 Similarly, work on economic sanctions has yet to fully grasp the consequences of economic networks and how they are being weaponized. 378–382, doi.org/10.1038/35019019. Studies of trade and banking show that the United States and the United Kingdom are exceptionally highly connected nodes in global financial networks.33 It is increasingly difficult to map the network relations of the internet for technical reasons, yet there is good reason to believe that the internet displays a similar skew toward nodes in advanced industrial democracies such as the United States and (to a lesser extent) the United Kingdom.34. Anecdotal evidence suggests similar processes are at work in a number of other areas, including dollar clearing and global supply chains. 147–180, doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00135; Charles L. Glaser, “How Oil Influences U.S. National Security: Reframing Energy Security,” International Security, Vol. In contrast, in internet communications, the United States will be able to exercise the panopticon effect even without the consent of its allies, but it will not be able to exercise the chokepoint effect. See John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, The Advent of Netwar (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, 1996). Google similarly leverages the benefits of search and advertising data.35 Large international financial institutions such as Citibank, security settlement systems such as Euroclear, consumer credit payment systems such as Visa/Mastercard, financial clearing houses such as the Clearing House Interbank Payments System, and financial messaging services such as the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) have become crucial intermediaries in global financial networks, acting as middlemen across an enormous number and variety of specific transactions. 43. Journal of Environmental Psychology 18:5–29. Tyrväinen, L., K. Mäkinen, and J. Schipperijn. 22. In I. Altman and S. Low (Eds.) 827–846, doi.org/10.1080/13501760701497659; Elliot Posner, “Making Rules for Global Finance: Transatlantic Regulatory Cooperation at the Turn of the Millennium,” International Organization, Vol. It also reflected domestic institutional constraints. The Ecology of Imagination in Childhood. In what follows, we use case evidence to demonstrate the two forms of network power—panopticon and chokepoint effects—and explain variation in their use. Moreover, not all sectors have been internationalized or rest heavily on networks of exchange. These principles were laid out in legislation including, most importantly, Section 230 of the 1996 Communications Decency Act, which protected e-commerce firms from “intermediary liability” for content put up by others.65 This section was intended for a specific and relatively narrow purpose—to provide businesses with safe harbor against legal actions aimed at content posted by users. This variation allows us to demonstrate the limits of these network strategies and also show that they are not simply coterminous with United States market size or military power. Soon-Hyung Yook, Hawoong Jeong, and Albert-László Barabási, “Modeling the Internet's Large-Scale Topology,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. States with large economic markets can leverage market access for strategic ends. American Journal of Community Psychology 26:823-851. UANI, “UANI Issues Statement following SWIFT's Announcement to Discontinue Services to EU-Sanctioned Iranian Financial Institutions,” press release (Washington, D.C.: UANI, March 15, 2012), https://www.unitedagainstnucleariran.com/press-releases/uani-issues-statement-following-swift%E2%80%99s-announcement-discontinue-services-eu-sanction. See, more generally, Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass. 6, No. Nicholas Lambert describes how the United Kingdom enjoyed a near monopoly over the communications infrastructure associated with international trade in the period before World War I, and developed extensive plans to use this monopoly to disrupt the economies of its adversaries, weaponizing the global trading system.41 As Heidi Tworek argues, Germany responded to the UK stranglehold on submarine communication cables by trying to develop new wireless technologies.42. Quoted in Michael Hirsch, “How America's Top Companies Created the Surveillance State,” National Journal, July 25, 2013, https://www.nationaljournal.com/s/628088/how-americas-top-tech-companies-created-surveillance-state. Attachment to Recreation Settings: The Case of Rail-Trail Users. States are locked into existing network structures only up to that point where the costs of remaining in them are lower than the benefits: should this change, one may see transitions to new arrangements. 25. 8. A mental disorder is an impairment of the mind disrupting normal thinking, feeling, mood, behavior, or social interactions, and accompanied by significant distress or dysfunction. 1998. Place attachment may lead to a heightened sense of environmental responsibility. Autophagy is a predominantly cytoprotective (rather than a self-destructive) process (Kroemer and Levine, 2008).Accordingly, autophagy can mediate protective effects in multiple rodent models of organ damage affecting the liver (Zhang and Cuervo, 2008), heart (Gottlieb and Mentzer, 2010), nervous system (Ravikumar et al., 2010), and kidney (Jiang et al., 2010), just to mention a few examples. Such networks have typically been depicted by liberals as a form of “complex interdependence,” a fragmented polity in which “there were multiple actors (rather than just states), multiple issues that were not necessarily hierarchically ordered, and force and the threat of force were not valuable tools of policy.”16 Such arguments allowed some space for the exercise of bilateral power, showing how states that depended on imports from other states, and had no ready substitutes, were vulnerable to outside pressure. 2 (Spring 2017), pp. For a prescient exception, see Thomas Wright, “Sifting through Interdependence,” Washington Quarterly, Vol. On network power, political theory, and international relations more generally, see David Singh Grewal, Network Power: The Social Dynamics of Globalization (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). New York: Praeger. New technologies such as cell phones become active sensors. Furthermore, they argue that asymmetries are likely to diminish over time as “structural holes” are filled in.18 More recently, Nye has argued that “entanglement” between states' economic and information systems can have important pacifying benefits for cybersecurity: precisely because states are interdependent, they are less liable to launch attacks that may damage themselves as well as their adversaries.19, Other liberal scholars, such as Anne-Marie Slaughter, claim that globalization creates decentralized networks that generate new opportunities for cooperative diplomacy.20 Slaughter's guiding metaphor for globalization is a web connecting a network of points rather than a “chessboard.” An arbitrarily large number of paths may connect two or several of these points together, suggesting that globalization is best understood as a nonhierarchical network in which the new arts of diplomacy consist in identifying the right relationships among the multitudes of possibilities to accomplish a given task. Sobel, D. 1990. New York: Wiley. Tworek, News from Germany: The Competition to Control World Communications, 1900– 1945 (Cambridge, Mass. 1995. 1, No. © 2019 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Western threats to weaponize SWIFT against Russia in the wake of the Ukraine crisis produced similar responses.117 Then Prime Minister Dimitry Medvedev threatened that “our economic reaction and generally any other reaction will be without limits,” while the chief executive of VTB, a major Russian bank, said it would mean that “the countries are on the verge of war, or they are definitely in a cold war.”118 In a major foreign policy speech, President Vladimir Putin warned that “politically motivated sanctions have only strengthened the trend towards seeking to bolster economic and financial sovereignty and countries' or their regional groups' desire to find ways of protecting themselves from the risks of outside pressure. 72, No. Human Ecology Review 10:100-112. Yet, existing theory provides few guideposts as to how states may leverage network structures as a coercive tool and under what circumstances. 47, No. Attachment, in contrast, ... Interdependence represents a middle ground between independence and dependence. Michael Hirsch describes how technology companies were worried about being seen as “instruments of government” but were willing to recognize that they needed to cooperate with the government on key issues.105 Under the PRISM program, the U.S. government had substantial legal authority to compel the production of records and information regarding non-U.S. individuals from technology companies. Place Identity as a Product of Environmental Self-Regulation. For recent exceptions, see Hafner-Burton, Kahler, and Montgomery, “Network Analysis for International Relations”; Goddard, “Embedded Revisionism”; Miles Kahler, ed., Networked Politics: Agency, Power, and Governance (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2009); Thomas Oatley, A Political Economy of American Hegemony: Buildups, Booms, and Busts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015); and Brandon J. Kinne, “Defense Cooperation Agreements and the Emergence of a Global Security Network,” International Organization, Vol. 42. Again, there is some historical precedent for this phenomenon. Westphal, L.M. 36–37, doi.org/10.1080/09692290802524059. 1–8, doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.68.036122; Aaron Clauset, Cosma Rohilla Shalizi, and M.E.J. These mechanisms and others may generate strong rich-get-richer effects over the short to medium term, in which certain nodes in the network become more central in the network than others. 2005. Journal of Arboriculture 29, 3:137-147. SWIFT's headquarters were established near Brussels, Belgium, to sidestep the emerging rivalry between New York and London as the hubs of global banking. This may help explain Russia's apparent reported interest in creating a blockchain-based payment system for the Eurasian Economic Union and other states interested in signing up.120 Blockchain systems are designed to use “proof of work” or “proof of stake” and provable guarantees (systems based on mathematically secure theorems) to avoid any need for central authority (and hence any possibility of that authority being leveraged for political or other purposes).121 In this way, a blockchain ledger for financial transactions could mute chokepoint strategies. See Laura DeNardis, “Hidden Levers of Internet Control: An Infrastructure-Based Theory of Internet Governance,” Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 85. 17, 2:165-170. Sense of Place in a Developmental Context. At this point, SWIFT realized the peril of the economic efficiencies that it itself had created. This distribution reflects a combination of the rich-get-richer effects common in network analysis and the particular timing of the most recent wave of globalization, which coincided with United States and Western domination of relevant innovation cycles. Importance of Team Work 2. 133–153, doi.org/10.1017/S1537592712003593; and Oatley, A Political Economy of American Hegemony. The result was that a small group of European and U.S. banks cooperated in building a messaging system that could replace the public providers and speed up the payment process. 99, No. Finally, innovation research suggests that there are important learning-by-doing effects, in which central nodes in networks have access to more information and relationships than do other members of the network, causing others to link to them preferentially to maintain access to learning processes.29. In: Green Cities: Good Health (www.greenhealth.washington.edu). See Patrick S. Ryan and Jason Gerson, “A Primer on Internet Exchange Points for Policymakers and Non-Engineers” (Rochester, N.Y.: Social Science Research Network, August 2012), doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2128103; Kuai Xu et al., “On Properties of Internet Exchange Points and Their Impact on AS Topology and Relationship,” in Nikolas Mitrou et al., eds., Networking, 2004: Networking Technologies, Services, and Protocols; Performance of Computer and Communication Networks; Mobile and Wireless Communications (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2004), pp. For sure, the United States has not directly leveraged its dominance to create chokepoints, both because it lacks the domestic institutional capacity, and because several administrations have believed that its strategic and business interests are better served by open networks than the overt use of force majeure.109 Yet, the United States has also systematically exploited the panopticon effect to great benefit and has been able to do so even when its allies have formally objected. It is the affective bond between people and place or setting. “Bank of Russia Suggests FinTech's Ethereum Blockchain as Single System for EAEU,” TASS, April 3, 2018, http://tass.com/economy/997474. In each domain, we demonstrate how a similar structural logic developed, as highly asymmetric networks emerged, in which a few hubs played a key role. Of course, there is a burgeoning scholarship on cybersecurity, which is relevant to the internet. 130–131, doi.org/10.1038/43601; Stefania Vitali, James B. Glattfelder, and Stefano Battiston, “The Network of Global Corporate Control,” PloS One, Vol. 61. 16, No. Gideon Rachman, “The Swift Way to Get Putin to Scale Back His Ambitions,” Financial Times, May 12, 2014; “Too Smart by Half? The initial liberal account of interdependence paid some attention to power, but emphasized bilateral relationships. 4 (December 2013), pp. Manzo, L. C. 2003. The more banks that used SWIFT, the more it created measurable network benefits for its members, and the less likely member banks were to defect.51 By the turn of the millennium, nearly all major global financial institutions used the SWIFT system to process their transactions (see figure 1). Psychological Restoration in Nature as a Positive Motivation for Ecological Behavior. The theoretical literature on network topography shows how standard models predict that many networks grow asymmetrically so that some nodes are far more connected than others. Place as an Integrating Concept in Natural Resource Politics: Propositions for a Social Science Research Agenda. George E. Shambaugh IV, “Dominance, Dependence, and Political Power: Tethering Technology in the 1980s and Today,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. The Journal of Environmental Education 32, 4:16–21. Henry Farrell and Abraham L. Newman, “Making Global Markets: Historical Institutionalism in International Political Economy,” Review of International Political Economy, Vol. For Better or Worse: Exploring Multiple Dimensions of Place Meaning. The result was a business model based on algorithms rather than employees.66 Google could similarly take advantage of the lack of intermediary liability, while expanding into new services. Thus, for example, the initial U.S. decision to exclude the Chinese firm ZTE from global supply chains appears to have precipitated a major reconsideration by the Chinese government of China's reliance on foreign chip manufacturers and of the need for China to create its own domestic manufacturing capacities to mitigate its economic vulnerabilities.116 This policy reorientation surely involves efforts to mitigate bilateral asymmetric vulnerabilities of the kind emphasized in traditional liberal accounts. 2 (April 2011), pp. Leisure Sciences 16:17-31. Neighborhoods, People, and Community. Several factors make urban green spaces preferred and meaningful places: restorative effects and escape, active use and value, similarity to the familiar, community and public significance, and emotional importance. 1994. 2000. 54. Beyond the Commodity Metaphor: Examining Emotional and Symbolic Attachment to Place. Hummon, D.M. Abraham L. Newman, Protectors of Privacy: Regulating Personal Information in the Global Economy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2008). Targeted states—or states that fear they will be targeted—may attempt to isolate themselves from networks, look to turn network effects back on their more powerful adversaries, and even, under some circumstances, reshape networks so as to minimize their vulnerabilities or increase the vulnerabilities of others.114 Hence, the more that privileged states look to take advantage of their privilege, the more that other states and nonstate actors will take action that might potentially weaken or even undermine the interdependent features of the preexisting system.115 The ability of states to resist weaponized interdependence will reflect, in part, their degree of autonomy from those economic interests that hope to maintain the benefits of centralized exchanges even in the face of greater constraints on state authority. Journal of Environmental Psychology 23, 3:259-271. Community Attachment and Attitudes toward Tourism Development. Colombia's Insurgency, Illusions of Autonomy: Why Europe Cannot Provide for Its Security If Rubinstein, R.L., and P.A. 36 (2008), pp. Informational networks such as the internet are notoriously internationalized: a single web page can stitch together content and advertisements from myriad independent servers, perhaps located in different countries. Albert-László Barabási and Réka Albert, “Emergence of Scaling in Random Networks,” Science, October 1999, pp. They allow some states to weaponize interdependence on the level of the network itself. For example, international oil markets are sufficiently diversified that they are relatively liquid, and thus present no single point of control.113 Where there are no network asymmetries, it will be difficult to weaponize interdependence. Journal of Environmental Psychology 9:241–256. Commercial actors too may look to disentangle themselves when the costs of state control start to exceed the benefits of network economies. Toward a Clarification of People-Place Relationships: A Model of Attachment to Place. The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, This site uses cookies. 2003. They appear to describe many global economic networks.31 Even when global networks largely came into being through entirely decentralized processes, they have come to display high skewness in the distribution of degree.32 More plainly put, some nodes in these networks are far better connected than others. As globalization has advanced, it has fostered new networks of exchange—whether economic, informational, or physical—that have remade domestic economies, densely and intimately interconnecting them in ways that are difficult to unravel.15 The financial sector depends on international messaging networks, which have become the key means through which domestic banks and financial institutions arrange transfers and communicate with each other. Williams, D.R., M.E. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, Economic Impact of Submarine Cable Disruptions (Singapore: APEC Policy Support Unit, February 2013). Childhood’s Domain: Play and Place in Child Development. Importance of team work 1. Tuan, Y.-F. 1990. 63. 68. 2005. These effects push markets toward winner-take-all equilibria in which only one or a few businesses have the lion's share of relationships with end users and, hence, profits and power. 1980. Because SWIFT is central to the international payment system, it provides data about most global financial transactions and allows these transactions to take place. Svendsen, E.S., and L.K. Russell, J.A., and J. Snodgrass. 65, No. Life Paths into Effective Environmental Action. The classic critique of liberalism's emphasis on mutual gains from cooperation is Stephen D. Krasner, “Global Communications and National Power: Life on the Pareto Frontier,” World Politics, Vol. As technology has developed, the ability of states to glean information about the activities of their adversaries (or third parties on whom their adversaries depend) has correspondingly become more sophisticated. Relational definition is - of or relating to kinship. An individualistic view assumes that attachment forms to specific locations based on first-hand experiences. Thus, for example, the U.S. sanctions regime applied to technology companies as well as other commercial actors, but the United States created specific (if dubiously beneficial) carve-outs (specific exceptions to the sanctions) intended to allow technology companies to support openness in Iran and other regimes subject to U.S. sanctions.97, The United States, under the Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama administrations, saw the spread of internet openness as linked to the spread of democracy, and strategically beneficial for the United States, as well as reflecting U.S. values.98 In a much remarked upon speech, Secretary of State Clinton depicted the internet as a “network that magnifies the power and potential of all others,” warning of the risks of censorship and celebrating the “freedom to connect” to “the internet, to websites, or to each other.”99 If the United States was to convince other states to refrain from controlling the internet, it also had to restrain itself, and moreover needed to ensure that the internet was not seen by other countries as a tool of direct U.S. influence. organizations – for example, museums, zoos, the local library, businesses and colleges and universities. Depending on domestic configurations of power and state-society relations, they may lack coercive capacity; alternatively, they may be able to prosecute strategies based only on panopticon effects and not on chokepoints, or vice versa. The Evolution of Territoriality in American Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); and Tonya L. Putnam, Courts without Borders: Law, Politics, and U.S. Extraterritoriality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016). Space is transformed into “place” when humans give it bounds and believe it has value. Eric Lichtblau and James Risen, “Bank Data Is Sifted by U.S. in Secret to Block Terror,” New York Times, June 23, 2006, https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/23/washington/23intel.html. 28. 2001. 2. 81. Environment and Behavior 34, 5: 561-581. 2003. 589–620, doi.org/10.1162/00208180152507560; Daniel W. Drezner, All Politics Is Global: Explaining International Regulatory Regimes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007); and Nikhil Kalyanpur and Abraham L. Newman, “Mobilizing Market Power: Jurisdictional Expansion as Economic Statecraft,” International Organization, Vol. The Effect of Place Attachment on Users’ Perception of Social and Environmental Conditions in a Natural Setting. The pattern of nodes and links between them is the topography (or what international relations scholars might call the “structure”) of the network. 2 (April 2017), pp. Aaron Arnold, “The True Costs of Financial Sanctions,” Survival, Vol. 58–88, doi.org/10.1177/0022002706296157; and Aaron Clauset, “Trends and Fluctuations in the Severity of Interstate Wars,” Science Advances, Vol. 31. Lacking a regulator such as the Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control, or legal instruments such as those that the United States introduced after September 11, 2001, it has not been able to deploy market control to influence non-EU banks in the same ways that the United States has. Our account emphasizes the crucial importance of the economic network structures within which all of these coercive efforts take place. Susan V. Scott, John Van Reenen, and Markos Zachariadis, The Long-Term Effect of Digital Innovation on Bank Performance: An Empirical Study of SWIFT Adoption in Financial Services, CEP Discussion Paper No. ... are aware of their interdependence with your school. Dependence on another person who is not in your family. 20. 6 (November 2010), pp. Brown, B., D.D. Newman, “Power-Law Distributions in Empirical Data,” SIAM Review, Vol.
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